Cover photo by RDNE Stock project on Pexels

By Megan Sumeracki

If you read our blog, even sporadically, you are almost certainly aware that investigations into evidence-based learning strategies have been ongoing for quite some time. In fact, as we near the end of 2025, I’m realizing that Ebbinghaus’ work on spaced practice was published 140 years ago (1)! Retrieval practice work extends back over 100 years as well, with Abbott’s work published in 1909 (2).

We know a lot about what cognitive strategies promote student learning, and what strategies really don’t. (Of course, we don’t know everything, and more research investigating novel questions is great! But, the base of this research is pretty well established at this point.) And yet, still, surveys from even the last couple of decades suggest that many students do not utilize evidence-based strategies. Instead, they tend to select strategies that are largely ineffective, or are highly inefficient (3; see this post, this post, and this post, for example).

How do we encourage students to adopt effective strategies? This is a difficult question (4). Ultimately, it is a question of transfer, and transfer is notoriously difficult to achieve (see this pair of posts, Part 1 and Part 2). It is particularly true when we are talking about far transfer. Our goal with effective learning strategies training would ideally be to get students to learn how to use these strategies and then continue to use them (flexibly, appropriately) across a lot of different subject areas, and a lot of different types of learning situations. There have been some interventions that we’ve covered before (see this post (5); this post (6); and this post (7)) with varying levels of success.

To address this, Mark McDaniel and Gil Einstein developed a framework related to training and transfer of effective learning strategies (8). Their purpose is twofold. First, McDaniel and Einstein note that while there are plenty of resources being developed, based on empirical evidence, to support students and teachers in developing the use of effective strategies. However, as they note, “little has been offered about how to effectively train this information so that students will initiate using these learning strategies on their own for their learning challenges (e.g., schoolwork) and sustain the use of these strategies” (8; p. 1364). The second goal was to promote more research on examining training and transfer of spontaneous (i.e., independent) use of effective strategies. Importantly, they developed a framework that could be applied across subject-matter domains, and even across students of varying ages.

I’ve been particularly interested in this paper, because I’m highly interested in this big question—how do we train students to utilize effective strategies and then get them to transfer the practice to other learning opportunities—but also because Mark McDaniel taught my training and transfer seminar at Washington University in St. Louis in grad school! (Fun fact: Cindy was in that seminar with me, too.)

Within McDaniel and Einstein’s framework, they describe four components that they theorize, based on the research we do have, need to be present in order to successfully train students to utilize evidence-based learning strategies. Importantly, they argue that all four components must be present for training and transfer to be successful. I briefly summarize each of these four components here, and refer any interested reader to the paper itself, in which the authors summarize a great deal of research on which the framework is based.

Strategy Knowledge

Students need to understand what strategies are actually effective, when and how to use them, and why the strategies are effective. The why is important, because it will help the students better understand how to more flexibly use the strategies, rather than providing a rigid prescription that must be followed.

Belief

The students need to believe that the learning strategies work, and specifically that they will work for them. The authors argue that, based on past research, direct experience with the strategies and their consequences will likely help most with this. In doing so, the students will also develop a strong relationship between their strategy selection and learning outcomes. This can, in turn, help to increase their self-efficacy, or their confidence in their own ability to learn.